Treatment of fluoride contaminated water at the source is carried out on a large scale under the supervision of skilled personnel, without direct involvement of the users, and where the affordability of treatment is taken for granted. In such cases the method of treatment is well established and well controlled. However, it requires major input of resources and may have serious limitations or disadvantages in less-developed countries; especially in rural areas where the settlements are scattered. This is especially adopted in developed countries.
==Construction, operations and maintenance==
There are several methods which have been developed to reduce fluoride from contaminated water, such as adsorption, ion exchange, precipitation, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. These methods have rarely been implemented in developing countries, except in some areas, due to insufficient removal efficiency, unaffordable costs, complicated operation and maintenance, particularly for rural populations.
The most common defluoridation methods used in developing countries at present are sorption on activated alumina, co-precipitation with aluminium hydroxide (known as the Nalgonda Technique) and sorption on bone char.
==Field experiences==
==Reference manuals, videos, and links==
* [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CFUQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Facademicjournals.org%2Fijps%2FPDF%2FPdf2008%2FJan%2FSajidu%2520et%2520al.pdf&ei=uj28T42JNongiAKqjc3RDQ&usg=AFQjCNFooQaWbqF5gy4QqOoAek4C1Xrrog&sig2=E1v4ZlCDezF7WoXzr7ZlYg Groundwater fluoride levels in villages of Southern Malawi and removal studies using bauxite.] International Journal of Physical Sciences Vol. 3 (1), pp. 001-011, January, 2008.
* [http://www.atmph.org/article.asp?issn=1755-6783;year=2008;volume=1;issue=2;spage=56;epage=58;aulast=Suneetha Defluoridation of water by a one step modification of the Nalgonda technique.] Annals of Tropical Medicine and Public Health.
==Acknowledgements==
* WONDIMAGEGN, AGEGNEHU ALEMU. [http://etd.aau.edu.et/dspace/bitstream/123456789/2531/1/193 DEVELOPMENT OF HOUSEHOLD DEFLUORIDATION UNIT BASED ON ALUMINIUM OXIDE HYDROXIDE.] December, 2008.
