|style="width:50%;"|{{santable_new|
sys1=[[Waterless System with Urine Diversion|4]]|
sys2=[[Biogas System|5]]|sys3=[[Sewerage System with Urine Diversion|89]]|sys3=|
sys4=|
sys5=|
ManPublic=XX|
Input1=Stored Urine |Input2= |Input3= | Input4= |Input5=|
Output1=- Biomass |Output2= | Output3= | Output4= | Output5=
|english_link=Application_of_Urine
|french_link=Application_d’urine
[[Image:Icon_application_of_urine.png |right|80px]]
'''Separately collected, stored urine is a high quality, concentrated source of nutrients that can be applied as a liquid fertilizer in agriculture to replace all or some commercial chemical fertilizer.'''
The guidelines for safe '''Stored urine use are based on storage time and temperature (please see WHO guidelines for specific requirements). However, it is generally accepted a concentrated source of nutrients that if urine is stored for at least 1 month, it will can be safe for agricultural application at the household levelapplied as a liquid fertilizer in agriculture and replace all or some commercial chemical fertilizers. '''
The guidelines for urine use are based on storage time and temperature (see WHO guidelines on excreta use in agriculture for specific requirements). However, it is generally accepted that if urine is stored for at least 1 month, it will be safe for agricultural application at the household level. If urine is used for crops that are eaten by those people other than the urine producer, it should be stored beforehand for 6 months. Another beneficial use of urine is as an additive to enrich compost. Technologies for the production of urine-based fertilizers are currently under research (e.g., struvite, see Emerging Sanitation Technologies, p. 166). From normal, healthy people, urine is virtually free of pathogens. Urine should not be applied to crops within one month before they also contains the majority of nutrients that are harvestedexcreted by the body. Its composition varies depending on diet, gender, climate, water intake, etc., but roughly 88% of nitrogen, 61% of phosphorus and 74% of potassium excreted from the body is in urine.
From normal, healthy people, ===Design Considerations=== Stored urine is virtually free should not be applied directly to plants because of pathogensits high pH and concentrated form. Urine also contains Instead, it can be: 1) mixed undiluted into soil before planting; 2) poured into furrows, but at a sufficient distance away from the majority roots of nutrients that are excreted by the bodyplants and immediately covered (although this should take place no more than once or twice during the growing season); and 3) diluted several times, whereby it can be frequently used around plants (up to two times weekly). Urine varies depending The optimal application rate depends on diet, gender, climate the nitrogendemand and water intake among other factstolerance of the crop on which it will be used, but roughly 80% the nitrogen concentration of nitrogenthe liquid, 60% as well as the rate of potassium and 55% ammonia loss during application. As a general rule of phosphorus thumb, one can assume that is excreted from 1 m2 of cropland can receive 1.5 L of urine per growing season(this quantity corresponds to the body daily urine production of one person and to 40-110 kg N/ha). The urine of one person during one year is excreted through urine, thus, sufficient to fertilize 300 to 400 m2 of cropland.
Because of its high pH (increases with length of storage) and concentration, stored urine should not be applied directly to plants. Rather it can be used: 1) Mixed undiluted into soil before planting; 2) Poured into furrows sufficiently away from plant roots and covered immediately (once or twice during the growing season); and 3) Diluted several times and used frequently (twice weekly) poured around plants. To calculate the application rate, one can assume that 1m<sup>2</sup> of cropland can receive the urine from 1 person per day (1 to 1.5L), per crop harvested (e.g. 400 m<sup>2</sup> of cropland per year can be fertilized). A 3:1 mix of water and urine is an effective dilution for vegetables, applied twice weekly, although the correct amount depends on the soil and the type of vegetables. If diluted urine is used in an irrigation system, it is referred to as “fertigation” (see D.6). During the rainy season, urine can also be applied directly into small holes near plants, where ; then it will be is diluted naturally.
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{{procontable | pro=
- Simple technique for all users. May encourage income generation (improved yield and productivity of plants) <br> - Low cost. Reduces dependence on costly chemical fertilizers <br> - Low risk of pathogen transmission. <br> - Reduces dependence on costly chemical fertilizers. <br> - May encourage income generation (tree planting.) Low costs| con=- Large volume compared to artificial fertilizer: urine Urine is heavy and may be difficult to transport. <br> - Smell may be offensive <br> - Labour intensive. <br> - Health precautions needed when applying urine.Risk of soil salinization if the soil is prone to the accumulation of salts <br>- Social acceptance may be low in some areas
}}
===AdequacyAppropriateness===Urine is especially beneficial where for crops are lacking in nitrogen. Examples of some crops that grow well with urine include: maize, rice, millet, sorghum, wheat, chard, turnip, carrots, kale, cabbage, lettuce, bananas, paw-paw, and oranges. Urine application is ideal for rural and peri-urban areas where agricultural lands are close to the point of urine collection. Households can use their own urine on their own plot of land. Alternatively, if facilities and infrastructure exist, urine can be collected at a semi-centralized location for distribution and transport to agricultural land. Regardless, the most important aspect is that there is a need for nutrients from fertilizer for agriculture which can be supplied by the stored urine. When there is no such need, the urine can become a source of pollution and a nuisance.
===Health Aspects/Acceptance=== Urine application is ideal poses a minimal risk of infection, especially when it has been stored for rural and peri-urban areas where agricultural lands are close to the point an extended period of urine collectiontime. Households can use their own Yet, urine on their own plot of land. should beAlternatively, if facilities carefully handled and infrastructure exist, urine can should not be collected at a semi-centralized location for distribution and transport applied to agricultural landcrops less than one month before they are harvested. Regardless, the most This waiting period is especially important aspect is for crops that there is a need for nutrients otherwise, the urine can become a source of pollution and nuisance if dealt with improperly. Recommendations are consumed raw (refer to WHO guidelines for storage time and application techniques must be fully understood and followedspecific guidance).
Urine should not Social acceptance may be applied difficult. Stored urine has a strong smell and some may find it offensive to work with it or to have it nearby. If urine is diluted and/or immediately tilled into the earth, however, its smell can be reduced. The use of urine may be less accepted in urban or peri-urban areas when household gardens are close to peoples’ homes than in rural areas with high salinitywhere houses and cropland are kept separate.
===Health Aspects/Acceptance===There is a minimal risk of infection, especially with extended storage. Still, urine should be handled carefully and should not be applied to crops less than one month before they are harvested. The risk of disease transmission through handling and using human urine are related mainly to faecal cross-contamination, which can occur with urine-diverting toilets. With urinals, this risk is not present. Social acceptance may be difficult. Stored urine has a strong smell and some may find it offensive to work with or be near. If urine is diluted, and/or immediately tilled into the earth, the smells can be reduced. The use of urine may be less accepted in urban or peri-urban areas where household gardens are close to houses than in rural areas, where houses and crop lands are separated. ===Operation & Maintenance=== With Over time, some minerals in urine will precipitate (especially , calcium and magnesium phosphates). Any equipment Equipment that is used to collect, transport or apply urine (i.e. , watering cans with small holes) may become clogged over time. Most deposits can easily be removed with hot water and a bit of acid (vinegar), or in more extreme cases, manually chipped off manually.
===References===
* [http://www.sswm.info/category/implementation-tools/reuse-and-recharge/hardware/reuse-urine-and-faeces-agriculture/urine-f Application of Stored Urine]. SSWM. * Austin, A. and Duncker, L. (2002). Urine-diversion. Ecological Sanitation Systems in South Africa. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa. * GTZ (2005). Technical data sheets for ecosan components- 01 Urine Diversion. GTZ, Germany. Available: http://www.gtz.de * Morgan, P. (2007). Toilets that make compost. Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. Available: http://www.ecosanres.org * Morgan, PR. (2004). An Ecological Approach to Sanitation in Africa: . A Compilation of Experiences. Aquamor, Harare, ZimbabweZW. Chapter 10 – : The usefulness Usefulness of urineUrine. :Availableat: [http://www.ecosanres.orgecosanres.org]
* NWP Morgan, P. R. (20062007). Smart Sanitation SolutionsToilets That Make Compost. Examples of innovativeLow-Cost, low-cost technologies Sanitary Toilets That Produce Valuable Compost for toiletsCrops in an African Context. Stockholm Environment Institute, collectionStockholm, transportation, treatment and use of sanitation productsSE.:Available at: [http://www. Netherlands Water Partnership, The Netherlandsecosanres. pp 51org ecosanres.org]
* Schonningvon Münch, CE. and StenstromWinker, TAM. (20042011). Guidelines for the Safe Use Technology Review of Urine Diversion Components. Overview of Urine Diversion Components Such as Waterless Urinals, Urine Diversion Toilets, Urine Storage and Faeces in Ecological Sanitation Reuse Systems-Report 2004-1. EcosanRes, Stockholm Environment InstituteGesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, StockholmEschborn, SwedenDE. :Availableat: [http://www.ecosanressusana.org/library susana.org/library]
* WinbladRichert, UA. , Gensch, R., Jönsson, H., Stenström, T. A., and Simpson-HerbertDagerskog, ML. (eds.) (20042010). Ecological Sanitation- revised and enlarged editionPractical Guidance on the Use of Urine in Crop Production. EcoSanRes, Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, SwedenSE. :Availableat: [http://www.ecosanressusana.org/library susana.org/library]
* WHO (2006). Guidelines for the safe use Safe Use of wastewaterWastewater, excreta Excreta and greywater – Greywater. Volume 4: Excreta and greywater use Greywater Use in agricultureAgriculture. WHOWorld Health Organization, Geneva, CH. (Health risks and recommended guidelines for urine application):Availableat: [http://www.who.intwho.int]
===Acknowledgements===
{{:Acknowledgements Sanitation}}